Objective
The aim of ESPREME was to develop methods and to identify strategies to support EU environmental policy-making for reducing the emissions and thus the harmful impacts of heavy metals (HMs). The core aim of the research was to carry out damage assessment considering heavy metals to the environment and human health in the long term. The priority metals mercury, cadmium, lead, nickel, arsenic and chromium have been covered.
A number of activities of the European Commission and the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe UNECE CLRTAP are focusing on heavy metals (HMs). Revisions of the Air Quality Framework Directive and the Clean Air for Europe program CAFE will benefit from ESPREME results as the development of the EU mercury strategy and further work on the UNECE 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals. The methodology to assess HMs in an integrated way, taking into account costs as well as benefits, goes in line with approaches promoted in CAFE.
The following tasks have been carried out
- Consolidation, improvement and provision of European wide emission data of the heavy metals considered.
- Systematic collection of data on possibilities to reduce emissions. Data on costs and effectiveness of abatement options have been collected as well as stock and activity data and emission factors for 2000 and 2010.
- Improvement of models for the transport of HM in air, soil and water and their application to simulate the transport of HM in these media; modeling results have been evaluated vs. measurement data.
- Collection of information on exposure-response relationships for human health as well as on thresholds for damages to ecosystems.
- Assessment of avoided damage from HM exposure by transferring monetary values from available contingent valuation studies.
- Estimation of the health impacts and of the exceedances of critical loads for ecosystems for two scenarios for 2010: a business as usual scenario (BAU), and a maximum feasible technical reduction (MFTR) scenario where a number of economically feasible technical measures have been implemented in addition to those already implemented in the BAU scenario.
- Estimation of overall damage costs per country and of country specific costs per t of HM released.
Achieved results
Emissions of HM into air, soil and water
 |
| Fig. 1: Contribution of different anthropogenic sources to the air emissions of Pb in Europe, BAU 2010 |
Detailed data on the emissions of HMs to air, water and soil have been generated which cover the base year 2000 as well as the BAU 2010 and MFTR 2010 scenarios. The emission inventories to air (Figure 1 shows the data for lead) have been improved and emissions into soils due to agricultural activities (Figure 2) have been estimated, all available in a high temporal (hourly) and spatial (50x50km²) resolution.
 |
| Fig. 2: Contribution of atmospheric deposition and direct agricultural input into soil in Europe, BAU 2010 |
As one example out of several investigated trace elements, Figure 3 shows the spatial distribution of lead emissions in Europe for the business as usual scenario (BAU) 2010.
 |
| Fig. 3: Spatial resolution of Pb emission, BAU 2010 |
Data sets with costs and potential of emission reduction measures
A detailed data base containing the main features of a large number of measures to reduce heavy metal emissions for all relevant sectors has been compiled. It contains for each measure the possible reduction of the emission factor, the possibilities and constraints of implementing it and the costs (see Synthesis Report on Potential and Costs of Abatement Options for Heavy Metals in Europe).
Detailed concentration maps of HMs concentrations in air and deposition into water and soil
Transport and deposition of HM in the atmosphere has been modeled using the atmospheric model of MSC-East. The pathway of HMs in water and soil, crop plants and food has been estimated with the multimedia model WATSON.
 |
| Fig. 4: Deposition of Cd in Europe, BAU 2010 |
With these models, concentrations and deposition fields as well as intake via ingestion have been generated for the different scenarios as exemplarily shown in Figure 4 for cadmium.
A set of exposure-response-relationships to calculate impacts to human health and a procedure to estimate the exceedances of critical loads in soil
Health endpoints covered include cancer, IQ losses, renal dysfunctions, still birth, cardiovascular mortality, anaemia, ataxia and osteoporosis.
Human health impacts and related external costs have been calculated for different emission scenarios, in addition marginal costs in € per ton for the inhalation pathway have been generated. The highest health damage in Europe is caused by lead, followed by arsenic and mercury. The damage caused by ingestion is much higher than that caused by inhalation, however occurs far in the future, thus damage costs are much lower, if discounted.
With regard to reduction measures, especially measures, that reduce simultaneously HM and other substances like particulate matter or SO2 have been found to be efficient. These include enhancement of dust filters, substitution of coal, further implementation of flue gas desulphurization and further reduction of lead in ‘unleaded’ gasoline.